History Tells Us

American Revolution and the War of Independence

Introduction

This work is dedicated to the history of American Revolution and the War of Independence. The main purpose of the survey given here is to analyze the events of the late 18 in the British colonies in target = "_blank"> North America based on extensive historical material published in the United States. The process took place before and during the period 1776-1783 when 13 British colonies aspiration for independence broke out in the War of Independence is remarkable for its many unique features on the one hand, and for many historical parallels that took place a century later when the colonial system widespread in around the world began to crumble.

John Adams, second president of the United States, said the history of the American Revolution began as early as 1620. "The Revolution", he said, "was made before the war began. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people." The principles and passions that led the Americans to rebel should he added, "that goes back two hundred years and reached into the country's history since the first plantings in America. "

In practice, however, the separation of the overt forms between England and the U.S. began in 1763, more than one century and a half after the first permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown, Virginia. The colonies had grown enormously in target = "_blank"> economic strength and cultural achievements, and virtually all had long years of self-government behind them. Its population already exceeded 1.5 million-a sixfold increase since 1700.

The physical implications of the growth of the colonies were far greater than simply increasing the number indicated. The 18th century brought a steady expansion of the influx of immigrants from Europe and from the best land near the sea coast had been occupied, the new settlers had to push inland beyond the fall line of rivers. Operators explored the country back, brought tales of rich valleys, and induced farmers to bring their families in the desert. Despite their difficulties were enormous, restless settlers kept coming, and pioneers 1730s had already begun to pour in the Shenandoah Valley.

Down to 1763, Britain had made no coherent policy for its colonial possessions. The guiding principle is the vision mercantilist confirmed that the colonies should provide the mother country with raw materials and not compete in manufacturing. But the policy was poorly designed, and the colonies had never thought of themselves as subordinates. On the contrary, were seen mainly as commonwealths or states, like Britain itself, with only a weak association with the authorities in London.

At frequent intervals, the feeling aroused in England and efforts were made by Parliament or Crown to subordinate economic activities and governments of the colonies to England the will and interest – efforts for most of the colonists were opposed. The distance that offers a vast ocean dispelled fears of reprisals from the colonies might otherwise have had.

Added to this was the distance nature of life itself in early America. Of the countries with few points in space and crowded cities, the colonists had come to a land of seemingly powerful endless. In Africa, natural conditions stressed the importance of the individual.

1. Border situation

The settlers, heirs to the traditions of a long struggle for political reasons English concepts embodied freedom of freedom to the first letter of Virginia. This provided that the English colonists were to exercise all liberties, franchises and immunities "as if they had been respectful and born within this our kingdom of England." They were, therefore, to enjoy the benefits of the Magna Carta and common law.

In the early days, the colonies were able to hold on to their inheritance rights by the arbitrary assumption of the King which were not subject to parliamentary control. Moreover, for many years, the kings of England were concerned also with big fight in England itself – a struggle that culminated in the Puritan Revolution – to enforce its will. Before Parliament could bring your attention to the task of shaping the American colonies to an imperial policy, which had grown strong and prosperous in their own right.

From the first year after they had put foot on the new continent, the colonists had worked according to English law and the constitution – with the legislature, a representative system of government, and recognition of common law guarantees of personal liberty. But increasingly became U.S. law in point of view, and less care and less emphasis on English practices and precedents. However, the freedom of the English colonial effective control was not without conflicts, and history abounds in the colonial struggles between the parliaments elected by the people and the governors appointed by the King.

However, the settlers were able to do that governors no real power, as a general rule, the governors had "no subsistence, but of the Assembly." Governors were told that the offices sometimes profitable and the land grants to influential settlers to secure their support for actual projects, but, as often as not, the colonial officials, once they had achieved such emolument, embraced the popular cause as strong as ever.

The recurring clashes between governor and assembly worked increasingly to awaken the colonists to the divergence between American and English interests. Gradually, the assemblies took over the functions of the governors and their councils, which were made up of settlers selected for their docility the support of real power, and the center of colonial administration shifted from London to the provincial capitals. In the early 1770s to Following the final expulsion of the French North American continent, an attempt was made to achieve a drastic change in the relationship between the colonies and the metropolis.

2. British and French conflict

While the British had been filling the Atlantic coastal area with farms, plantations, and cities, the French had planted the other domain in the San Lorenzo Valley, in eastern Canada. After sending a smaller number of settlers, but explorers, missionaries and fur traders, France had taken over the Mississippi River and through a line forts and trading posts, was a huge crescent-shaped empire stretching from Quebec in the northeast of New Orleans in the south. Therefore, the British tended to take This narrow belt of the Appalachians.

The British had long resisted what they considered "the invasion of the French." Already in 1613, local clashes between French and English settlers. Finally, the war was organized, the largest U.S. counterpart conflict between England and France. Thus, between 1689 and 1697, "King William's War" was fought in the American phase of the European "War of the Palatinate." From 1702-1713, "The Queen Anne's War" was for the "War of Spanish Succession." And from 1744-1748, "King George's War "parallel to the" War of the Austrian Succession. "Although England certain benefits granted to these wars, the struggles were generally indecisive, and France was in a strong position in the Americas.

In the 1750s, the conflict reached its final phase. The French, after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, strengthened his hold on the Mississippi Valley. At the same time, the English settler movement through the Allegheny higher tempo, encouraging a race physical possession of the same territory. An armed confrontation in 1754, with the participation of Virginia militia under the command of 22 years of George Washington and a French group of regular, marked the beginning of the French "War of Seven" – in English and their Indian allies fought against the French and their Indian allies. This was designed to determine once and for all French or English supremacy in North America.

Never was there a greater need action and unity in the British colonies. The French threatened not only the British Empire but the American colonists themselves, in celebration of the valley Mississippi, France could control its spread westward. The French government of Canada and Louisiana had not only grown in strength but also in prestige with the Indians, including the Iroquois, traditional allies of the British. With a new war, every British settler knew scholar in indigenous affairs that drastic measures be necessary to avoid disaster.

3. In the first awakening of the unit

At this juncture, the British Board of Trade, news of a deteriorating relationship with the Indians, ordered the governor of New York and commissioners of the other colonies call a meeting of Iroquois chiefs tried to frame a whole. In June 1754, representatives of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New England colonies met with the Iroquois at Albany. The Indian air their grievances, and the delegates recommended appropriate action.

The Albany Congress, however, transcended their purpose original solution of Indian problems. Declared a union of American colonies "absolutely necessary for their preservation, and representatives colonial present adopted the Albany Plan of Union. Written by Benjamin Franklin, the plan provided that a president appointed by the King with an act of great advice of elected delegates by the assemblies, each colony to be represented in proportion to their financial contributions to the general treasury. The government was in charge of all British interests in West – Indian treaties, trade, defense, and settlement. But none of the colonies accepted Franklin's plan, since none wanted to give it the power of taxation or control over the development of the West.

Colonies that offers little support for the war as a whole, all schemes not bring "a sense of duty to king. "The settlers could see the war only as a struggle for the rule by Britain and France. They feel no remorse when the British government was forced to send large numbers of regular troops to colonial battles. Nor though the redcoats "," instead of provincial troops won the war. Nor do I see no reason to curb the trade, in effect, is trading with the enemy.

Despite this lack of support wholeheartedly and colonial, despite several early military defeats, England superior strategic position and competent leadership ultimately brought victory complete. After eight years conflict, Canada and the Upper Mississippi Valley were conquered at last, and the dream of a French empire in North America vanished.

Having triumphed over France, not only in America but in India and throughout the colonial world in general, the United Kingdom was forced to confront a problem that had hitherto neglected – the governance of their empire. It is essential that now organize their vast possessions to facilitate defense, reconcile the divergent interests from different areas and peoples, and distribute more equitably the cost of imperial administration.

Only in America, overseas territories British had more than doubled. To the narrow strip along the Atlantic coast has been added the vast expanse of Canada and the territory between the river Mississippi and the Allegheny, an empire in itself. A population that had been predominantly Protestant English and continental anglicized French Catholic now includes and large numbers of partly Christianized Indians. Defense and the administration of new territories and age, it takes huge sums of money and more staff. The system "colonial" was inadequate. Even during the exigencies of a war threatening the very existence of the settlers themselves, the system has proved incapable colonial ensure cooperation or support. So what could be expected in times of peace when no external danger looming?

4. Colonial resistance

As clear as was the need of a new British imperial design, the situation in America was not at all favorable for a change. Accustomed to a high degree independence, the colonies were asking for more, not less, freedom, especially now that the French threat had been eliminated. To put a new system in place to strengthen control, the statesmen of England had to contend with colonists trained in self-government and impatient of interference.

One of the first things I tried for the British was to organize the interior. The conquest of Canada and the Ohio Valley need policies that do not alienate the French and Indian inhabitants. But here the Crown came in conflict with the interests of the colonies that rapidly increasing population, were determined to exploit the newly conquered territories themselves. Need of new lands, various colonies claimed the right to extend its borders west to the Mississippi River.

The British government, fearing that farmers migrate to the new lands would provoke a series of wars with the Indians, believed that Indians should be given time anxious to settle and that the lands should be opened settlers more gradual. In 1763, a royal proclamation reserved all the western territories from the Alleghenies, Florida, Mississippi and Quebec for use by the Indians. Thus the Crown attempted to sweep away all claims to lands west of the thirteen colonies and to stop westward expansion. Although never effectively enforced, this measure, in the eyes of the colonists, constituted a disregard of their most basic arbitrary right to occupy and use the western lands, as needed.

More serious in its repercussions was the new financial policy of the British government needed more money to support the growing empire. Unless the taxpayer England was to supply all the colonies have to contribute. However, revenues could be extracted from the colonies only through a management stronger central at the expense of colonial self-government.

The first step in the inauguration of the new system was the passage of the Sugar Act of 1764. This was designed to increase revenues without regulating trade. In fact, the Commission amended the Molasses Act of 1733, which had placed a prohibitive duty on the import rum and molasses from non-English areas. The Sugar Act amendments prohibited the importation of foreign rum; put a modest duty on molasses from all sources, and received the rights on wines, silks, coffee, and a number of other luxury items. To force compliance, Customs officials received order to show more energy and rigor. British warships in American waters were instructed to take smugglers, and "support resources" (orders cotton) authorized officers to search King's premises suspected.

5. Tax Disputes

Not so much the new features that caused consternation among New England merchants. It was rather the fact that steps were being taken for effective implementation, an entirely new development. During more than a generation, New England was used to import most of the molasses for their rum distilleries French and Dutch West Indies without having to pay a fee. At present, argued that payment of even the small duty imposed would be ruinous.

It turned out that preamble of the Sugar Act gave settlers the opportunity to rationalize their discontent on constitutional grounds. The power of Parliament to tax colonial products for the regulation of trade had been long accepted in theory but not always in practice, but the power of tax "for improving revenue of this kingdom ", as stated in the Revenue Act of 1764, was new and therefore debatable.

The constitutional issue became an entering wedge in the great dispute which was finally to wrest the American colonies from England. "A single act of Parliament," wrote James Otis, fiery orator Massachusetts, "has created a greater number of people thinking about six months, more than what he had done in his life before." legislatures retailers and town meetings protested against the desirability of the law, and colonial lawyers like Samuel Adams is in the preamble to the first hint of "taxes without representation ", the keyword that would bring many to the cause of the American patriots against the mother.

Later in the same year, Parliament enacted a Currency Act "to prevent paper bills of credit hereafter issued in any of the colonies of His Majesty that take place during legal. "Since the colonies were a deficit area and consistently below the" hard money ", he added that a heavy burden on the colonial economy. History of the American currency also objectionable from the standpoint of colonial cantonment was Law, adopted in 1765, which required colonies to provide quarters and supplies for the royal troops.

Strong as was the opposition to these acts, was the last of the measures inaugurating the new colonial system sparked resistance organized. Known in history as the "Stamp Act", established that revenue stamps be affixed to all newspapers, pamphlets, brochures, licenses, leases or other legal documents, the revenue (collected by U.S. agents) to be used to "defend, protect and fulfill" the colonies. The burden seemed so evenly and lightly distributed that the measure was passed by Parliament with little debate.

The violence of the reaction in the thirteen colonies However, surprisingly moderate men everywhere. The act aroused the hostility of the most powerful and articulate groups, journalists, lawyers, clergy, merchants and businessmen in the north and south, east and west, to take him equally in all sections of the country. Soon leading merchants, in which each knowledge shipment would be taxed, organized the resistance and formed non-importation associations.

Trade with the mother country fell off sharply in the summer of 1765. Prominent men organized as "Sons of Liberty" and the political opposition soon erupted in rebellion. Swollen Crowds marched through the streets of Boston. From Massachusetts to South Carolina the act was nullified, and mobs, forcing luckless agents to resign their offices, destroyed the hated stamps.

Inspired by Patrick Henry, the Virginia Assembly passed a series of resolutions denouncing taxation without representation as a threat to colonial liberties. A few days later, the Massachusetts House invited all the colonies to appoint delegates to a Congress in New York to discuss the threat of the Stamp Act. This Congress, held in October 1765, was the first ever meeting between colonial initiative convened by the United States. Twenty-seven men from nine colonies seized the opportunity to mobilize colonial opinion against parliamentary interference in American affairs. After much debate, Congress passed a series of resolutions asserting that "no new taxes ever have been or may be constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective legislatures" and that the Act Ringer was a "manifest tendency to subvert the rights and freedoms of the settlers."

6. Reduction of tax disputes

The question be developed focused on the question of representation. From the point of the colonies of view, it was impossible to be considered represented in Parliament unless they really the members elected to the House of Commons. But this conflicted with the orthodox English principle "virtual representation", ie the representation by classes and interests rather than by location.

Most British officials held that Parliament was an imperial body representing and exercising authority over the colonies as at home: Massachusetts could pass laws as it could for Berkshire in England.

American leaders held that no "imperial" Parliament existed, their only legal relations were with the Crown. He was the king who had agreed to establish colonies beyond king of the sea and provided them governments. That the king was equally a king of England and King of Massachusetts agreed, but insisted that the Parliament English had no right to pass laws for Massachusetts than the Massachusetts legislature had to pass laws for England.

The British Parliament was not willing to accept the colonial contentions. British merchants, however, feeling the effects of the American boycott, threw their weight behind a repeal movement, and in 1766 the Parliament passed repealing the Stamp Act and modifying the Sugar Act. The colonies rejoiced. Colonial merchants not to import left agreement, the Sons of Liberty declined, trade resumed its course, peace seemed at hand.

But it was only a respite. The year 1767 brought another series of measures to be moved back all the elements of discord. Charles Townshend, British Chancellor of the Exchequer, for the project of a fiscal program. Intending reduction British tax, streamlining the collection of duties levied on American trade, tightened customs administration, while sponsors rights on paper, glass, lead and tea exported from England to the colonies.

This was designed to increase revenues to be used in part to support colonial governors, judges, customs officers, and the British army in America. Another measure suggested by the higher courts authorized Townshend of the colonies to issue writs of assistance, which would give specific legal authority to general search warrants and hateful to the colonists.

Agitation after the enactment of the Townshend duties was less violent than that stirred by the Stamp Act, however, was strong. Merchants once again resorted the non-importation agreements. Men dressed in homespun clothing, women find substitutes for tea. Students use the role as colonial. Homes left without paint. In Boston, where business interests here more sensitive to any interference, the implementation of the new regulations provoked violence. When officers Customs sought to collect taxes, they were attacked by the populace and roughly handled. To this end, two regiments were sent to protect the customs commissioners.

The presence of British troops in Boston was a standing invitation to disorder. On March 5, 1770, after 18 months of resentment, antagonism between citizens and soldiers lit. What began as a snowball harmless the redcoats degenerated into a mob attack. Someone gave the order to fire, three Bostonians lay dead in the snow, and colonial agitators had a valuable point n its campaign to raise hostility to England. Known as the Slaughter of Boston, the incident was dramatically represented as evidence of cruelty and British tyranny.

Faced with such opposition, Parliament in 1770 opted for a strategic retreat and repealed all the Townshend taxes except for tea. The tax on tea is maintained because, as George III, there must be a tax to keep right. For most of the settlers of the Parliament's action constituted, in effect, a redress of grievances "and the campaign against England was largely eliminated measure. An embargo on "English tea" continued, but was not too scrupulously.

In general, the situation seemed ripe for imperial relations. Prosperity was increasing and most colonial leaders were willing to let the future take care of itself. Inertia and neglect seemed succeed where the most audacious policies had failed. The moderate element, prevalent everywhere in the colonies, welcomed the peaceful interlude.

7. The Boston "Tea Party"

During an interval of three years of calm, a relatively small number of "patriots" or "radical" strove energetically to keep the controversy alive. While the tax on tea was kept, they argued, the principle of Parliament's right over the colonies remained. And at any point in the future, the principle could be applied in its entirety with a devastating effect on colonial liberties.

Typical of the patriots was their most effective leader Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, who worked tirelessly for a single goal: independence. Since graduating from the University Harvard, Adams was a public official in any capacity chimney inspector, tax collector, moderator of town meetings. The lack of consistency in business was shrewd and able in politics, with the meeting of the New England town theater of action.

Adam's tools were men: his goal was to win confidence and support of ordinary people to free them from respecting their social and political superiors, make them aware of their own importance, and arouse to action. To do this, he published articles in newspapers and made speeches in town meetings, instigating resolutions appealing to the democratic impulses of the settlers.

In 1772, prompted the meeting of the city of Boston to select a "committee of correspondence" to assert the rights and grievances of the colonists, to communicate with other towns in these areas, and request that the draft responses. Quickly, the idea spread. Committees were established in almost all the colonies, and they soon became a cash basis revolutionary organizations.

In 1773, Britain appointed Adams and his co-workers with a desired topic. The powerful company East India, finding itself in critical financial situation, called upon the British government and was granted a monopoly on all tea exported to the colonies. Because the rate of Townshend tea, the colonists had boycotted the tea company, and after 1770, as a thriving illegal trade There were perhaps nine-tenths of the tea consumed in America was of foreign origin and imported duty free.

The company decided sell its tea through its own agents at a much lower price than usual, which at the same time make it profitable smuggling and disposal of the colonial merchants independent. Excited, not just the loss of the tea trade, but also the practical monopoly involved, colonial traders joined the patriots. In almost all the colonies, steps were taken to prevent the East India Company after the execution of their design.

In ports other than Boston, agents of the company were "persuaded" to resign, and new shipments of tea were returned to England or storage. In Boston, the agents refused to resign and supported by the royal governor, preparations were made to land incoming cargoes regardless of opposition. The response of the patriots, led by Samuel Adams, was violence. On the night of December 16, 1773 a group of men disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three British ships at anchor and dumped its load of tea into Boston Harbor.

8. British repression

A crisis now facing Britain. The East India Company had performed an act of parliament, and if the destruction tea went unheeded, Parliament would admit to the world that he had no control over the colonies. The official opinion in Britain almost unanimously condemned Boston "Tea Party" as an act of vandalism and advocated legal measures for the settlers online insurgents.

Parliament responded with new laws for the settlers called "coercive acts." The first, the Boston Port Bill, which closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid, threatened the very life of the city, to exclude Boston from the sea meant economic disaster. Other laws prescribed appointment by the King of directors of Massachusetts, previously elected by the settlers, and the summoning of jurors by the sheriffs, who were agents of the governor. So far, the jury had been selected at meetings of the colonial city. In addition, the governor's permission would be required for meetings of the city, and the appointment and dismissal of judges and officers would be in their hands. A Quartering Act required local authorities to find adequate rooms for British troops.

The Quebec Act, passed almost at the same time expanded the boundaries of the province of Quebec and guaranteed the right of the French inhabitants to enjoy religious freedom and their own legal customs. The colonists opposed this law, because, regardless of an old charter claims to western lands, which threatened to interfere with the westward movement and seemed hem them in the north and northwest by a Roman Catholic dominated province. While the Quebec Act had not been adopted as a punitive measure, was classified by the Americans with coercive laws and all that is known as the "Five Intolerable Acts." These acts, instead of submitting to Massachusetts, as they had planned to do together its sister colonies to help.

At the suggestion of the Virginia Burgesses, colonial representatives were summoned to meet in Philadelphia on September 5 1774, "to inquire about the current unrest in the colonies." The delegates to this meeting, known as the First Continental Congress were elected by provincial congresses or popular conventions. Every colony except Georgia sent at least one delegate, and the total number of 55 was large enough for the diversity of opinion, but small enough for real debate and effective action.

The division of opinion in the colonies posed a real dilemma for the Congress should give an appearance of firm unanimity to induce the British government to make concessions and at the same time, avoid any signs of radicalism or spirit of independence "that would alarm moderate Americans. A wise speech, followed by a decision" that was not due obedience law enforcement, concluded with a Declaration of Rights and Grievances addressed to the people of Great Britain.

The most important action taken by Congress, however, was the formation of a "Partnership", which provides for the renewal of the trade boycott and a system of committees to inspect customs entries, publish names of the traders who violate the agreements, confiscate their imp0rtations, and encourage frugality, economy and industry.

The Association took the lead everywhere, spurring new local organizations to end what remained of royal authority. They intimidated the hesitant to join the popular movement and punished the hostile. He started the collection of military supplies and troop mobilization. And were released into the public revolutionary ardor.

A gap that had developed among the people slowly expanded the activities of the association committees. Many Americans, opposed to the British invasion rights in America, encouraged discussion and negotiation as the appropriate solution. This group included most of the official rank (officers Crown Courts), many Quakers and members of other religious sects opposed to the use of violence, many merchants, especially the Middle Colonies, and some farmers malcontents and adventurers from the southern colonies. The Patriots, on the other hand, drew its support not only of the less well-done, but many of the professional class, especially lawyers, most of the great planters of the south, and a number of traders.

While the course of events after the adoption of coercive laws left the loyalists appalled and frightened, the King could have made a covenant with them and, by timely concessions, so strengthened their position that patriots have found it difficult to proceed with hostilities. However, George III had no intention of making concessions. In September 1774, scorning a petition by Philadelphia Quakers, who wrote: "The die is now cast, the colonies must either submit or triumph." This court the grass under the loyalists or Tories, "as they came to be called.

GeneralThomas Gage, an amiable English gentleman with a woman born in the United States was in command of the garrison at Boston, where political activity had almost completely replaced trade. A patriot's main city, Dr. Joseph Warren, wrote to an English friend on February 20, 1775:

"It's not too late to accommodate the dispute amicably, but I am of the opinion that if once General Gage should lead his troops in the country with the design to enforce the late acts of Parliament, Britain can enjoy their holidays, at least in the colonies of New England, and if I'm right, and the Americas. If there is any wisdom in the nation, God willing, soon came out! "

Gage was a general duty to enforce the law enforcement. News reached him that the Massachusetts patriots were collecting powder and military stores in the city Inside the Concordia, 32 miles from Boston. On the night of April 18, 1775, sent a strong detail of his garrison to confiscate these munitions and make Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who had been ordered sent to England to stand trial for their lives. But the whole countryside had been alerted by Paul Revere and two other messengers.

When British troops after a night out, we reached the town of Lexington, they saw through the fog of the morning, a somber group of 50 Minutemen – Armed colonists – lined up on the common. There was a moment of hesitation, cries and orders from both sides and, in the noise, a shot. Shooting broke out along both lines, and the Americans dispersed, leaving eight of their dead on the green. The first blood of the war for American independence had been shed.

The British drove to Concord, where farmers "harassed" North Bridge "the shot heard round the world." Its aim in part achieved force British began the return march. Along the road, behind stone walls, hillocks, and houses of the village militia and the farm was the target of the layers bright red of the British soldiers. At the time the weary column encountered in Boston its losses totaled nearly three times those suffered by the settlers.

9. The congressional debate on independence

The news of Lexington and Concord flew from one local community to another in the thirteen colonies. Within 20 days evokes a common spirit of American patriotism from Maine to Georgia.

While the alarms of Lexington and Concord to sound yet again, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Its president was John Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant. Benjamin Franklin, who had returned from London where, as "agent" for several of the colonies, he had sought in vain to reconcile. The Congress was organized just before he was called to deal with the issue of open warfare. Although some opposition was present, the real temper of Congress was revealed by a statement of the stirring "The reasons and the need to take weapons, "the joint product of John Dickinson and Jefferson:

"Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our internal resources are large, and if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedly possible …. The arms we have been compelled by our enemies to assume, let's … used for the preservation of our liberties, being with a mind resolute to die freemen rather than live as slaves. "

Even the statement was the subject of debate, Congress took militia in the Continental service and appointed Colonel George Washington commander in chief of American forces. However, despite the military involvement and the appointment a commander in chief, the idea of complete separation from England was still repugnant to some members of Congress and a considerable part of the American people. Era Clearly, however, that the colonies could not remain forever in the middle and outside the British Empire.

10. The rigidity of the resolution

As the months progressed, the difficulties of prosecuting a war while still part of the British Empire became more and more evident. Without concessions from England, and on August 23, 1775, King George issued a proclamation declaring that the colonies are in a state of rebellion.

Five months later, Thomas Paine published a 50-page booklet, common sense, driving home in the vigorous style of the need for independence. Paine, a political theorist who had come to America from England in 1774, even dared to attack the sacred person of the king, ridiculing the idea of hereditary monarchy and declare that a man was worth more to society than "all the crowned ruffians that ever lived." Persuasively presented the alternatives – continued submission to a king worn tyrannical government or freedom and happiness as a self-sufficient, independent republic. Distributed throughout the colonies, the brochure helped crystallize conviction and to mobilize the undecided to the cause of separation.

There was still the task of obtaining the approval of each colony to a formal statement apart. It was agreed that the Continental Congress should not take definitive measures such as independence without first receiving explicit instructions from the colonies. But Congress heard the day of the creation of new extralegal colonial governments and delegates are authorized to vote for independence. At the same time, the predominance of the radicals in Congress increased as they extended their correspondence, committees strengthened weak shot patriot and minds while stirring resolutions.

Finally, on May 10, 1776, a resolution to "cut the Gordian knot" was adopted. Now only a statement formal was needed. On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring in favor of independence, foreign alliances, and the American federation. Immediately, a committee of five members, headed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, was appointed to draft a formal declaration "setting forth the causes which led us to this resolution, powerful. "

11. Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776 – not only announced the birth of a new nation, but also set forth a philosophy of human liberty thereafter to be a dynamic force throughout the Western world. Rested, not private wrongs, but on a broad base of individual freedom that could command general support throughout the Americas. His political philosophy is explicit:

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers the consent of the governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is people's right to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, that shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. "

The Declaration Independence served a purpose far beyond a public announcement of the separation. Its ideas inspired mass fervor for the American cause, as instilled among the common people a sense of their own importance, inspiring them to fight for personal freedom, autonomy, and a worthy place in society.

War Independence lasted more than six years, fighting in all colonies. Even before the Declaration of Independence, there were military operations that had an influence important on the outcome of the war – for example, the crushing of the North Carolina loyalists in February and March 1776 forced the evacuation of British forces Boston.

For many months after declaring independence, the Americans suffered serious setbacks. The first was in New York. In Battle of Long Island, Washington's position became ununtenable, and executed a masterly retreat in small boats from Brooklyn to the shores of Manhattan. The north wind and place British warships could not reach the East River. Thus, the British general William Howe missed an opportunity to address the cause American a blow, perhaps to end the war.

Washington, though constantly rejected, was able to keep their forces intact until the end of the year. important victories at Trenton and Princeton revived hopes for the colony, then calamity once again beaten. In September 1777, Howe captured Philadelphia led Congress to flight and left Washington to spend the winter with his men at Valley Forge.

However, 1777 also saw the largest U.S. victory of war, the military turning point of the Revolution. British General John Burgoyne moved from Canada with a force designed to gain control Lake Champlain-Hudson River line and therefore isolated from the other New England colonies. Burgoyne reached the upper Hudson River, but before he could continue south, was forced to wait for supplies until the middle of September.

Ignorance of American geography led him to believe that would be easy for a strike force to march through the Hampshire Grants (Vermont) down horses along Connecticut River and back, collection, cattle, and wagons along the way for the use of his army, all in a matter of two weeks. For this feat he chose 375 dismounted dragoons and Canadian Hesse about 300 and the Indians. Not even reach the line of Vermont. Vermont's militia were found near Bennington. Few ever returned Hessians.

The Battle of Bennington met New England militia, and Washington sent reinforcements from the lower Hudson River. At the time of Burgoyne put back its forces in motion the army of General Horatio Gates was waiting. Led by Benedict Arnold, the Americans rejected the British twice. Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga, and on October 17, 1777, surrendered. This decisive blow of the war brought from France to the American side.

Conclusion: the final victory of the colonies

From the time the Declaration of Independence was signed, France had not been neutral. The government had been eager for reprisal against England since the defeat of France in 1763. Moreover, enthusiasm for the American cause was high: the French intellectual world was in revolt against feudalism and privilege. However, although France has welcomed Benjamin Franklin at the French court and had given the United States assistance in the form of munitions and supplies, had been reluctant a direct risk intervention and war with England.

After Burgoyne's surrender, however, Franklin was able to secure trade agreements and alliance. Even before this, many French volunteers had sailed to America. The most prominent among them was the Marquis de La Fayette, a young army officer, that in the winter of 1779-80, went to Versailles and persuaded his government to make a real effort to bring the war to an end. Soon after, Louis XVI sent to States Together an expeditionary force of 6,000 men under Comte de Rochambeau. In addition, the French fleet exacerbated the difficulties the British had in the supply and strengthening of its forces, and the French joined the U.S. blockade runners in inflicting heavy losses on British commerce.

In 1778, the British were forced to evacuate Philadelphia because of threatened action by the French fleet. During the same year in the Ohio Valley, which suffered a series of setbacks that said U.S. domination of the northwest. However, the British continued to press the war in the south. In early 1780 they captured Charleston, south of the main port Carolina and invaded the country. The following year he made an effort to conquer Virginia. But the French fleet, which gained temporary control of the coastal waters of America that the summer, Washington and Rochambeau moved troops vessels on the Chesapeake Bay. Their combined armies, totaling 15,000 men, locked in the army Lord Cornwallis' 8,000 in Yorktown, on the coast of Virginia. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.

When news of the American victory in Yorktown reached Europe, the House of Commons voted to end the war. Peace negotiations began in April 1782 and continued through November, when preliminary treaties were signed. These should not enter into force until France concluded peace with Great Britain. In 1783, they were signed as final and binding. The peace settlement acknowledged the independence, freedom and sovereignty of the 13 states, which was granted much coveted territory west to the Mississippi, and establish the northern boundary of the country close as it runs now. The Congress was to recommend to the states to restore property confiscated from loyalists.

Bibliography

1. Billia, George Athan, ed. The American Revolution: How Revolutionary era? New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1990.

2. Barba, Carlos A. and Mary. Basic History of the United States. New York: Doubleday Doran and Company, 1944.

3. Eliot, George Fielding. American Revolution. Microsoft Encarta 1997 CD-ROM

Hafstadter. United States. 4th ed. 74, 76-77, 80.

4. Brinton, Crane. Anatomy of the Revolution. Vintage Books: New York, 1965

5. Greene, Jack P. The American Revolution, its nature and its limits. New York University Press: New York, 1987.

6. Miller, John C. The origins of the American Revolution. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1959.

7. Thomas, Peter DG Tea Party to Independence: the third phase of the revolution American, 1773-1776. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.

8. Olsen, Keith W., et al. Outline of American History. As reprinted in the U.S. Internet http://www.let.rug.nl/ ~ / H /.

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